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{{Infobox programming language
| name                  = Haskell
| logo                  = [[File:Haskell-Logo.svg|120px|Logo of Haskell]]
| paradigm              = [[functional programming|functional]], lazy/[[non-strict programming language|non-strict]], [[modular programming|modular]]
| year                  = 1990
| designer              = [[Simon Peyton Jones]], [http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/hudak-paul/ Paul Hudak], [[Philip Wadler]], et al.
| developer              =
| latest release version = Haskell 2010<ref>http://www.haskell.org/pipermail/haskell/2009-November/021750.html</ref>
| latest release date    = {{start date and age|2009|11|24}}
| latest test version    = Haskell 2011
| latest test date      =
| typing                = [[static typing|static]], [[strong typing|strong]], [[type inference|inferred]]
| implementations        = [[Glasgow Haskell Compiler|GHC]], [[Hugs]], [http://www.cs.york.ac.uk/fp/nhc98/ NHC], [http://repetae.net/john/computer/jhc/ JHC], [[Yhc]]
| dialects              = [[Helium (Haskell)|Helium]], [[Gofer (software)|Gofer]]
| influenced            = [[Agda (theorem prover)|Agda]], [[Bluespec, Inc.|Bluespec]], [[Clojure]], [[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]], [[CAL (Quark Framework)|CAL]], [[Cat (programming language)|Cat]], [[Cayenne (programming language)|Cayenne]], [[Clean (programming language)|Clean]], [[Curry (programming language)|Curry]], [[Epigram (programming language)|Epigram]], [[Escher (programming language)|Escher]], [[F Sharp (programming language)|F#]], [[Factor (programming language)|Factor]], [[Isabelle theorem prover|Isabelle]], [[Generics in Java|Java Generics]], [[Kaya (programming language)|Kaya]], [[Language Integrated Query|LINQ]], [[Mercury (programming language)|Mercury]], [[Ωmega interpreter|Omega]], [[Perl 6]], [[Python (programming language)|Python]], [[Qi (programming language)|Qi]], [[Scala (programming language)|Scala]], [[Timber (programming language)|Timber]], [[Visual Basic .NET|Visual Basic 9.0]]
| influenced by          = [[Alfl]], [[APL (programming language)|APL]], [[FP (programming language)|FP]], [[Hope (programming language)|Hope, Hope+]], [[Id (programming language)|Id]], [[ISWIM]], [[Kent Recursive Calculator|KRC]], [[Lisp (programming language)|Lisp]], [[Miranda (programming language)|Miranda]], [[ML (programming language)|ML, Standard ML]], [[Lazy ML]], [[Orwell (programming language)|Orwell]], [[Ponder (programming language)|Ponder]], [[SASL (programming language)|SASL]], [[SISAL]], [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]]
| operating system      = [[Cross-platform]]
| license                =
| website                = {{url|http://haskell.org}}
| file ext              = <code>.hs</code>, <code>.lhs</code>
}}


'''Haskell''' ({{pron-en|ˈhæskəl}})<ref>http://www.haskell.org/pipermail/haskell-cafe/2008-January/038756.html</ref><ref>http://www.haskell.org/pipermail/haskell-cafe/2008-January/038758.html</ref> is a standardized, general-purpose [[purely functional]] [[programming language]], with [[non-strict programming language|non-strict semantics]] and [[Strong typing|strong]] [[Type system#Static typing|static typing]]. It is named after [[logician]] [[Haskell Curry]]. In Haskell, "a function is a [[first-class object|first-class citizen]]"<ref>Rod Burstall, "Christopher Strachey—Understanding Programming Languages", ''Higher-Order and Symbolic Computation'' '''13''':52 (2000)</ref> of the programming language. As a functional programming language, the primary control construct is the [[subroutine|function]]; the language is rooted in the observations of Haskell Curry<ref>{{Citation | last1=Curry | first1=Haskell | title=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | chapter=Functionality in Combinatory Logic | year=1934  | volume=20 | pages=584–590}}</ref><ref name="CurryFeys_paragraph9E">{{Citation | last1=Curry | first1=Haskell B. | last2=Feys | first2=Robert | other1-last=Craig | other1-first=William | title=Combinatory Logic Vol. I | publisher=North-Holland | location=Amsterdam | year=1958}}, with 2 sections by William Craig, see paragraph 9E</ref> and his intellectual descendants,<ref>De Bruijn, Nicolaas (1968), ''Automath, a language for mathematics'', Department of Mathematics, Eindhoven University of Technology, TH-report 68-WSK-05. Reprinted in revised form, with two pages commentary, in: ''Automation and Reasoning, vol 2, Classical papers on computational logic 1967-1970'', Springer Verlag, 1983, pp. 159-200.</ref><ref>{{Citation | last1=Howard | first1=William A.
| chapter=The formulae-as-types notion of construction
| pages=479–490
| editor1-last=Seldin | editor1-first=Jonathan P.
| editor1-link=Jonathan P. Seldin
| editor2-last=Hindley | editor2-first=J. Roger
| editor2-link=J. Roger Hindley
| title=To H.B. Curry: Essays on Combinatory Logic, Lambda Calculus and Formalism
| origyear=original paper manuscript from 1969
| publisher=[[Academic Press]] | location=Boston, MA | isbn=978-0-12-349050-6 | month=09 | year=1980}}.</ref> that "[[Curry&ndash;Howard isomorphism#Origin, scope, and consequences|a proof is a program; the formula it proves is a type for the program]]".
== History ==
Following the release of [[Miranda (programming language)|Miranda]] by Research Software Ltd, in 1985, interest in [[Lazy evaluation|lazy functional languages]] grew: by 1987, more than a dozen [[non-strict]], [[purely functional]] programming languages existed. Of these, Miranda was the most widely used, but was not in the public domain. At the conference on Functional Programming Languages and Computer Architecture (FPCA '87) in [[Portland, Oregon]], a meeting was held during which participants formed a strong consensus that a committee should be formed to define an [[open standard]] for such languages. The committee's purpose was to consolidate the existing [[functional languages]] into a common one that would serve as a basis for future research in functional-language design.<ref name="Pref98">{{cite web|url=http://haskell.org/onlinereport/index.html|title=Haskell 98 Language and Libraries: The Revised Report|year=2002|month=December}}</ref>
=== Haskell 1.0 ===
The first version of Haskell ("Haskell 1.0") was defined in 1990.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/History_of_Haskell|title=The History of Haskell}}</ref> The committee's efforts resulted in a series of language definitions.
=== Haskell 98 ===
In late 1997, the series culminated in '''Haskell 98''', intended to specify a stable, minimal, portable version of the language and an accompanying standard [[library (computer science)|library]] for teaching, and as a base for future extensions. The committee expressly welcomed the creation of extensions and variants of Haskell 98 via adding and incorporating experimental features.<ref name=Pref98/>
In February 1999, the Haskell 98 language standard was originally published as "The Haskell 98 Report".<ref name=Pref98/> In January 2003, a revised version was published as "Haskell 98 Language and Libraries: The Revised Report".<ref name="RevisedReport">{{cite web|url=http://haskell.org/onlinereport/|title=Haskell 98 Language and Libraries: The Revised Report|year=2002|month=December|author=Simon Peyton Jones (editor)|authorlink=Simon Peyton Jones}}</ref> The language continues to evolve rapidly, with the [[Glasgow Haskell Compiler|Glasgow Haskell Compiler (GHC)]] implementation representing the current ''de facto'' standard.
=== Haskell Prime ===
In early 2006, the process of defining a successor to the Haskell 98 standard, informally named '''Haskell&prime;''' ("Haskell Prime"), was begun.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hackage.haskell.org/trac/haskell-prime|title=Welcome to Haskell'|work=The Haskell' Wiki}}</ref> This is an ongoing incremental process to revise the language definition, producing a new revision once per year.  The first revision, named Haskell 2010, was announced in November 2009.<ref>Simon Marlow, Tue Nov 24 05:50:49 EST 2009: "[Haskell] Announcing [http://www.haskell.org/pipermail/haskell/2009-November/021750.html Haskell 2010]"</ref>
==== Haskell 2010 ====
Haskell 2010 adds the Foreign Function Interface (FFI) to Haskell, allowing for bindings to other programming languages, fixes some syntax issues (changes in the formal grammar) and bans so-called "n-plus-k-patterns", that is, definitions of the form <code>fak (n+1) = (n+1) * fak n</code> are no longer allowed. It introduces the Language-Pragma-Syntax-Extension which allows for designating a haskell source as Haskell 2010 or requiring certain Extensions to the Haskell Language. The names of the extensions introduced in Haskell 2010 are
DoAndIfThenElse, HierarchicalModules, EmptyDataDeclarations, FixityResolution, ForeignFunctionInterface, LineCommentSyntax, PatternGuards, RelaxedDependencyAnalysis, LanguagePragma, NoNPlusKPatterns.<ref>http://www.haskell.org/pipermail/haskell/2009-November/021750.html Haskell 2010 announcement</ref>
<!-- To do: Describe the change-over from I/O based on lazy streams to monadic I/O. -->
== Features ==
{{Main|Haskell features}}
{{See also|Glasgow Haskell Compiler#Extensions to Haskell}}
Haskell features [[lazy evaluation]], [[pattern matching]], [[list comprehensions]], typeclasses, and [[type polymorphism]]. It is a [[purely functional]] language, which means that in general, functions in Haskell do not have [[Side effect (computer science)|side effects]]. There is a distinct type for representing side effects, [[Orthogonal#Computer science|orthogonal]] to the type of functions. A pure function may return a side effect which is subsequently executed, modeling the impure functions of other languages.
Haskell has a [[strongly typed programming language|strong]], [[static type#Static typing|static]] type system based on [[Hindley–Milner type inference]].  Haskell's principal innovation in this area is to add [[type class]]es, which were originally conceived as a principled way to add overloading to the language,<ref name="wadler89">{{cite journal|last1=Wadler|first1=P.|first2=S. |last2=Blott|year=1989|title=How to make ad-hoc polymorphism less ad hoc|journal=Proceedings of the 16th ACM [[SIGPLAN]]-[[SIGACT]] [[Symposium on Principles of Programming Languages]]|publisher=[[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]|pages=60–76|doi=10.1145/75277.75283}}</ref> but have since found many more uses.<ref name="hallgren01">{{cite journal|last=Hallgren|first=T.|date=January 2001|title=Fun with Functional Dependencies, or Types as Values in Static Computations in Haskell|journal=Proceedings of the Joint CS/CE Winter Meeting|location=Varberg, Sweden|url=http://www.cs.chalmers.se/~hallgren/Papers/wm01.html}}</ref>
The type which represents side effects is an example of a [[monad (functional programming)|monad]]. Monads are a general framework which can model different kinds of computation, including error handling, [[Nondeterministic algorithm|nondeterminism]], [[parsing]], and [[software transactional memory]]. Monads are defined as ordinary datatypes, but Haskell provides some [[syntactic sugar]] for their use.
The language has an open, published specification,<ref name=RevisedReport/> and [[#Implementations|multiple implementations exist]].
There is an active community around the language, and more than 2600 third-party open-source libraries and tools are available in the online package repository Hackage.<ref name="hackage-stats">http://hackage.haskell.org/cgi-bin/hackage-scripts/stats</ref>
The main implementation of Haskell, [[Glasgow Haskell Compiler|GHC]], is both an [[Interpreter (computing)|interpreter]] and native-code [[compiler]] that runs on most platforms. GHC is noted for its high-performance implementation of concurrency and parallelism,<ref name="shootout">[http://shootout.alioth.debian.org/ Computer Language Benchmarks Game]</ref> and for having a rich type system incorporating recent innovations such as [[generalized algebraic data type]]s and [http://www.haskell.org/ghc/docs/latest/html/users_guide/type-families.html Type Families].
== Code examples ==
{{See also|Haskell features#Examples}}
The following is a [[Hello world program]] written in Haskell (note that except for the last line all lines can be omitted):
<source lang="haskell">
module Main where
main :: IO ()
main = putStrLn "Hello, World!"
</source>
Here is the factorial function in Haskell, defined in five different ways::
<source lang="haskell">
-- type
factorial :: Integer -> Integer
-- using recursion
factorial 0 = 1
factorial n = n * factorial (n - 1)
-- using lists
factorial n = product [1..n]
-- using recursion but written without pattern matching
factorial n = if n > 0 then n * factorial (n-1) else 1
-- using fold
factorial n = foldl (*) 1 [1..n]
-- using only prefix notation and n+k-patterns (no longer allowed in Haskell 2010)
factorial 0 = 1
factorial (n+1) = (*) (n+1) (factorial n)
</source>
An efficient implementation of the [[Fibonacci numbers]], as an infinite list, is this:
<source lang="haskell">
-- Point-free style
fib :: Integer -> Integer
fib = (fibs !!)
      where fibs = 0 : scanl (+) 1 fibs
-- Explicit
fib :: Integer -> Integer
fib n = fibs !! n
        where fibs = 0 : scanl (+) 1 fibs
</source>
== Implementations ==
The following all comply fully, or very nearly, with the Haskell 98 standard, and are distributed under [[open source]] licenses. There are currently no proprietary Haskell implementations.
* The '''[[Glasgow Haskell Compiler]]''' (GHC) compiles to native code on a number of different architectures—as well as to [[ANSI C]]—using [[C--]] as an [[intermediate language]]. GHC is probably the most popular Haskell compiler, and there are quite a few useful libraries (e.g. bindings to [[OpenGL]]) that will work only with GHC. GHC is also distributed along with the [[Haskell platform]].
* '''[[Gofer (software)|Gofer]]''' was an educational dialect of Haskell, with a feature called "constructor classes", developed by Mark Jones. It was supplanted by Hugs (see below).
* '''[http://www.cs.chalmers.se/~augustss/hbc/hbc.html HBC]''' is another native-code Haskell compiler. It has not been actively developed for some time but is still usable.
* '''[[Helium (Haskell)|Helium]]''' is a newer dialect of Haskell. The focus is on making it easy to learn by providing clearer error messages. It currently lacks full support for type classes, rendering it incompatible with many Haskell programs.
* The '''[http://www.cs.uu.nl/wiki/UHC Utrecht Haskell Compiler]''' (UHC) is a Haskell implementation from [[Utrecht University]]. UHC supports almost all Haskell 98 features plus many experimental extensions. It is implemented using [[attribute grammar]]s and is currently mainly used for research into generated type systems and language extensions.
* '''[[Hugs]]''', the '''Haskell User's Gofer System''', is a [[bytecode]] interpreter. It offers fast compilation of programs and reasonable execution speed. It also comes with a simple graphics library. Hugs is good for people learning the basics of Haskell, but is by no means a "toy" implementation. It is the most portable and lightweight of the Haskell implementations.
* '''[http://repetae.net/john/computer/jhc/ Jhc]''' is a Haskell compiler written by John Meacham emphasising speed and efficiency of generated programs as well as exploration of new program transformations. [[LHC (Haskell compiler)|LHC]] is a recent fork of Jhc.
* '''[http://www.cs.york.ac.uk/fp/nhc98/ nhc98]''' is another bytecode compiler, but the bytecode runs significantly faster than with Hugs. Nhc98 focuses on minimizing memory usage, and is a particularly good choice for older, slower machines.
* '''[[Yhc]]''', the '''York Haskell Compiler''' was a fork of nhc98, with the goals of being simpler, more portable and more efficient, and integrating support for [http://www.haskell.org/hat/ Hat], the Haskell tracer.  It also featured a [[JavaScript]] backend allowing users to run [http://haskell.org/haskellwiki/Haskell_in_web_browser Haskell programs in a web browser].
== Applications ==
Haskell is increasingly being used in commercial situations.<ref>See [http://industry.haskell.org/index Industrial Haskell Group] for collaborative development, [http://cufp.galois.com/ Commercial Users of Functional Programming] for specific projects and [http://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/Haskell_in_industry Haskell in industry] for a list of companies using Haskell commercially</ref> [[Audrey Tang]]'s [[Pugs]] is an implementation for the long-forthcoming [[Perl 6]] language with an interpreter and compilers that proved useful after just a few months of its writing; similarly, GHC is often a testbed for advanced functional programming features and optimizations. [[Darcs]] is a revision control system written in Haskell, with several innovative features. [[Linspire]] GNU/Linux chose Haskell for system tools development.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://urchin.earth.li/pipermail/debian-haskell/2006-May/000169.html|title=Linspire/Freespire Core OS Team and Haskell|work=Debian Haskell mailing list|year=2006|month=May}}</ref> [[Xmonad]] is a [[window manager]] for the [[X Window System]], written entirely in Haskell.
Bluespec SystemVerilog is a language for semiconductor design that is an extension of Haskell. Additionally, [[Bluespec, Inc.]]'s tools are implemented in Haskell. [[Cryptol]], a language and toolchain for developing and verifying cryptographic algorithms, is implemented in Haskell. Notably, the first formally verified [[microkernel]], [[SeL4#Current research and development|seL4]] was verified using Haskell.
== Related languages ==
[[Clean (programming language)|Concurrent Clean]] is a close relative of Haskell. Its biggest deviation from Haskell is in the use of [[uniqueness type]]s instead of [[monad (functional programming)|monads]] for I/O and side-effects.
A series of languages inspired by Haskell, but with different type systems, have been developed, including:
* [[Epigram (programming language)|Epigram]], a functional language with dependent types suitable for proving properties of programs
* [[Agda (theorem prover)|Agda]], a functional language with dependent types
Other related languages include:
* [[Curry (programming language)|Curry]], a language based on Haskell
* [[Jaskell]], a functional scripting programming language that runs in Java VM
Haskell has served as a testbed for many new ideas in language design. There have been a wide number of Haskell variants produced, exploring new language ideas, including:
* Parallel Haskell:
** From [[Glasgow University]].<ref>[http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/~dsg/gph/ Glasgow Parallel Haskell]</ref> supports clusters of machines or single multiprocessors.<ref>[http://www.haskell.org/ghc/docs/6.6/html/users_guide/lang-parallel.html GHC Language Features: Parallel Haskell]</ref>  Also within Haskell is support for Symmetric Multiprocessor parallelism.<ref>[http://www.haskell.org/ghc/docs/6.6/html/users_guide/sec-using-smp.html Using GHC: Using SML parallelism]</ref>
** From [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]<ref>[http://csg.csail.mit.edu/projects/languages/ph.shtml MIT Parallel Haskell]</ref>
* Distributed Haskell (formerly Goffin) and [[Eden (computing)|Eden]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}
* [[Eager Haskell]], based on [[speculative execution|speculatively evaluation]].
* Several [[object-oriented programming|object-oriented]] versions: Haskell++, O'Haskell, and Mondrian.
* [[generic programming#Generic Haskell|Generic Haskell]], a version of Haskell with type system support for [[generic programming]].
* O'Haskell, an extension of Haskell adding [[object-oriented programming|object-orientation]] and [[concurrent programming]] support.
* Disciple, an explicitly lazy dialect of Haskell which supports destructive update, computational effects, type directed field projections and allied functional goodness.
== Criticism ==
Jan-Willem Maessen, in 2002, and [[Simon Peyton Jones]], in 2003, discussed problems associated with lazy evaluation while also acknowledging the theoretical motivation for it,<ref>Jan-Willem Maessen. ''Eager Haskell: Resource-bounded execution yields efficient iteration''. Proceedings of the 2002 [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] SIGPLAN workshop on Haskell.</ref><ref>Simon Peyton Jones. [http://research.microsoft.com/~simonpj/papers/haskell-retrospective ''Wearing the hair shirt: a retrospective on Haskell'']. Invited talk at [[POPL]] 2003.</ref> in addition to purely practical considerations such as improved performance.<ref>Lazy evaluation can lead to excellent performance, such as in The Computer Language Benchmarks Game [http://www.haskell.org/pipermail/haskell/2006-June/018127.html]</ref> They note that, in addition to adding some performance overhead, laziness makes it more difficult for programmers to reason about the performance of their code (particularly its space usage).
Bastiaan Heeren, Daan Leijen, and Arjan van IJzendoorn in 2003 also observed some stumbling blocks for Haskell learners: "The subtle syntax and sophisticated type system of Haskell are a double edged sword — highly appreciated by experienced programmers but also a source of frustration among beginners, since the generality of Haskell often leads to cryptic error messages."<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Bastiaan |last1=Heeren |first2=Daan |last2=Leijen |first3=Arjan |last3=van IJzendoorn|year=2003|title=Helium, for learning Haskell|journal=Proceedings of the 2003 [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] [[SIGPLAN]] workshop on Haskell|url=http://www.cs.uu.nl/~bastiaan/heeren-helium.pdf}}</ref> To address these, they developed an advanced interpreter called [[Helium (Haskell)|Helium]] which improved the user-friendliness of error messages by limiting the generality of some Haskell features, and in particular removing support for [[type class]]es.
== Conferences and workshops ==
The Haskell community meets regularly for research and development activities. The primary events are:
* [http://www.haskell.org/haskell-symposium/ The Haskell Symposium] (formerly the Haskell Workshop)
* [http://haskell.org/haskellwiki/HaskellImplementorsWorkshop The Haskell Implementors Workshop]
* [http://www.icfpconference.org/ The International Conference on Functional Programming]
Since 2006 there has been a series of organized "hackathons", the [http://haskell.org/haskellwiki/Hackathon Hac] series, aimed at improving the programming language tools and libraries<ref>http://haskell.org/haskellwiki/Hackathon</ref>:
*Ghent, Nov 2010
*Kiev, Oct 2010
*Australian Hackathon, Jul 2010
*Philadelphia, May 2010
*Zurich, Mar 2010
*Portland, OR, Sep 2009
*Edinburgh, Aug 2009
*Philadelphia, Jul 2009
*Utrecht, Apr 2009
*Leipzig, Apr 2008
*Göteborg, Apr 2008
*Freiburg, Oct 2007
*Oxford, Jan 2007
*Portland, Sep 2006
Since 2005, a growing number of [http://haskell.org/haskellwiki/User_groups Haskell User Groups] have formed, in the United States, Canada, Australia, South America, Europe and Asia.
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
* {{official|http://haskell.org}}, HaskellWiki
* {{dmoz|Computers/Programming/Languages/Haskell|Haskell}}
* [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=1238844.1238856  A History of Haskell: being lazy with class]
* [http://www.willamette.edu/~fruehr/haskell/evolution.html The Evolution of a Haskell Programmer], slightly humorous overview of different programming styles available in Haskell
* [http://haskell.readscheme.org/ Online Bibliography of Haskell Research]
* [http://www.se-radio.net/podcast/2008-08/episode-108-simon-peyton-jones-functional-programming-and-haskell SE-Radio Podcast with Simon Peyton Jones on Haskell]
* [http://www.techworld.com.au/article/261007/-z_programming_languages_haskell?pp=1 Techworld interview on innovations of Haskell]
* [http://sequence.complete.org/ The Haskell Sequence], weekly news site
* [http://themonadreader.wordpress.com/ Monad Reader], quarterly magazine on Haskell topics
=== Tutorials ===
{{wikibooks|Haskell}}
{{wikibooks|Write Yourself a Scheme in 48 Hours}}
* [http://tryhaskell.org/ Try Haskell!], interactive tutorial, runs in browser
* [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/ Real World Haskell], fast-moving book focusing on practical examples, published with [[Creative Commons]] license
* [http://learnyouahaskell.com/ Learn You a Haskell For Great Good!], humorous introductory tutorial with illustrations
* [http://www.umiacs.umd.edu/~hal/docs/daume02yaht.pdf Yet Another Haskell Tutorial], by Hal Daume III; assumes far less prior knowledge than official tutorial
* [http://haskell.org/tutorial/ A Gentle Introduction to Haskell 98], more advanced tutorial, also available as [http://www.haskell.org/tutorial/haskell-98-tutorial.pdf pdf file]
* [http://cheatsheet.codeslower.com/ The Haskell Cheatsheet], compact language reference and mini-tutorial
* [http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/teaching/distinguished-projects/2009/w.jones.pdf Warp speed Haskell]
* [http://haskell.org/sitewiki/images/8/85/TMR-Issue13.pdf The Typeclassopedia], about Haskell's type classes, start at p. 17 of pdf
[[Category:Haskell programming language family|*]]
[[Category:Functional languages]]
[[Category:Articles with example Haskell code]]
[[Category:Programming languages created in 1990]]
[[Category:Educational programming languages]]
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